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Contents ^
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Next >
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SongList class, which we can
specialize into catalogs and playlists.
SongList object. We have three obvious
choices. We could use the Ruby Array type, use the Ruby Hash type,
or create our own list structure. Being lazy, for now we'll
look at arrays and hashes, and choose one of these for our class.
Array holds a collection of object references.
Each
object reference occupies a position in the array, identified by a
non-negative integer index.
You can create arrays using literals or by explicitly creating an
Array object. A literal array is simply a list of objects between
square brackets.
a = [ 3.14159, "pie", 99 ]
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a.type
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Array
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a.length
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3
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a[0]
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3.14159
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a[1]
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"pie"
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a[2]
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» |
99
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a[3]
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nil
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b = Array.new
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b.type
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Array
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b.length
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0
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b[0] = "second"
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b[1] = "array"
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b
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["second", "array"]
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[] operator.
As with most Ruby
operators, this is actually a method (in class Array) and hence
can be overridden in subclasses. As the example shows, array indices
start at zero. Index an array with a single integer, and it returns
the object at that position or returns nil if nothing's there.
Index an array with a negative integer, and it counts from the
end. This is shown in Figure 4.1 on page 35.
| Figure not available... |
a = [ 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 ]
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a[-1]
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9
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a[-2]
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7
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a[-99]
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nil
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[start, count].
This returns a new array consisting of references to count objects
starting at position start.
a = [ 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 ]
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a[1, 3]
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[3, 5, 7]
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a[3, 1]
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[7]
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a[-3, 2]
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» |
[5, 7]
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a = [ 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 ]
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a[1..3]
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[3, 5, 7]
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a[1...3]
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[3, 5]
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a[3..3]
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[7]
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a[-3..-1]
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[5, 7, 9]
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[] operator has a corresponding []= operator, which
lets you set elements in the array. If used with a single integer
index, the element at that position is replaced by whatever is on the
right-hand side of the assignment. Any gaps that result will be filled
with nil.
| a = [ 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 ] | » | [1, 3, 5, 7, 9] |
| a[1] = 'bat' | » | [1, "bat", 5, 7, 9] |
| a[-3] = 'cat' | » | [1, "bat", "cat", 7, 9] |
| a[3] = [ 9, 8 ] | » | [1, "bat", "cat", [9, 8], 9] |
| a[6] = 99 | » | [1, "bat", "cat", [9, 8], 9, nil, 99] |
[]= is two numbers (a start and a length) or a
range, then those elements in the original array are replaced by
whatever is on the right-hand side of the assignment. If the length is
zero, the right-hand side is inserted into the array before the start
position; no elements are removed. If the right-hand side is itself an
array, its elements are used in the replacement.
The array size is automatically adjusted if the index selects a
different number of elements than are available on the right-hand side
of the assignment.
| a = [ 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 ] | » | [1, 3, 5, 7, 9] |
| a[2, 2] = 'cat' | » | [1, 3, "cat", 9] |
| a[2, 0] = 'dog' | » | [1, 3, "dog", "cat", 9] |
| a[1, 1] = [ 9, 8, 7 ] | » | [1, 9, 8, 7, "dog", "cat", 9] |
| a[0..3] = [] | » | ["dog", "cat", 9] |
| a[5] = 99 | » | ["dog", "cat", 9, nil, nil, 99] |
=> value pairs between braces.
h = { 'dog' => 'canine', 'cat' => 'feline', 'donkey' => 'asinine' }
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h.length
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3
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h['dog']
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"canine"
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h['cow'] = 'bovine'
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h[12] = 'dodecine'
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h['cat'] = 99
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h
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» |
{"cow"=>"bovine", "cat"=>99, 12=>"dodecine", "donkey"=>"asinine", "dog"=>"canine"}
|
Hash starts on page 317.
SongList. Let's invent a basic list of
methods we need in our SongList. We'll want to add to it as we go
along, but it will do for now.
Array. Similarly, the ability to return a song at an integer
position in the list is supported by arrays.
However, there's also the
need to be able to retrieve songs by title, which might suggest using a
hash, with the title as a key and the song as a value. Could we use a
hash? Well, possibly, but there are problems. First a hash is
unordered, so we'd probably need to use an ancillary array to keep
track of the list. A bigger problem is that a hash does not support
multiple keys with the same value. That would be a problem for our
playlist, where the same song might be queued up for playing multiple
times. So, for now we'll stick with an array of songs, searching it
for titles when needed. If this becomes a performance bottleneck, we
can always add some kind of hash-based lookup later.
We'll start our class with a basic initialize method, which
creates the Array we'll use to hold the songs and stores a
reference to it in the instance variable @songs.
class SongList def initialize @songs = Array.new end end |
SongList#append method adds the given song to the end of the
@songs array. It also returns self, a reference to the
current SongList object. This is a useful convention, as it lets
us chain together multiple calls to append. We'll see an
example of this later.
class SongList def append(aSong) @songs.push(aSong) self end end |
deleteFirst and deleteLast
methods, trivially implemented using
Array#shift
and
Array#pop
, respectively.
class SongList def deleteFirst @songs.shift end def deleteLast @songs.pop end end |
append returns the SongList object to chain together
these method calls.
list = SongList.new
list.
append(Song.new('title1', 'artist1', 1)).
append(Song.new('title2', 'artist2', 2)).
append(Song.new('title3', 'artist3', 3)).
append(Song.new('title4', 'artist4', 4))
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nil is returned when the list becomes
empty.
list.deleteFirst
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Song: title1--artist1 (1)
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list.deleteFirst
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» |
Song: title2--artist2 (2)
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list.deleteLast
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» |
Song: title4--artist4 (4)
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list.deleteLast
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» |
Song: title3--artist3 (3)
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list.deleteLast
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» |
nil
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[], which accesses elements
by index. If the index is a number (which we check using
Object#kind_of?
), we just return the
element at that position.
class SongList def [](key) if key.kind_of?(Integer) @songs[key] else # ... end end end |
list[0]
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Song: title1--artist1 (1)
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list[2]
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» |
Song: title3--artist3 (3)
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list[9]
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nil
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SongList is to implement the code in
method [] that takes a string and searches for a song with
that title. This seems straightforward: we have an array of songs, so
we just go through it one element at a time, looking for a match.
class SongList def [](key) if key.kind_of?(Integer) return @songs[key] else for i in [email protected] return @songs[i] if key == @songs[i].name end end return nil end end |
for loop
iterating over an array. What could be more natural?
It turns out there is something more natural. In a way,
our for loop is somewhat too intimate with the array; it asks for
a length, then retrieves values in turn until it finds a match. Why
not just ask the array to apply a test to each of its members?
That's just what the find method in Array does.
class SongList
def [](key)
if key.kind_of?(Integer)
result = @songs[key]
else
result = @songs.find { |aSong| key == aSong.name }
end
return result
end
end
|
if as a statement modifier to shorten the
code even more.
class SongList
def [](key)
return @songs[key] if key.kind_of?(Integer)
return @songs.find { |aSong| aSong.name == key }
end
end
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find is an iterator---a method that invokes a
block of code repeatedly. Iterators and code blocks are among the
more interesting features of Ruby, so let's spend a while looking into
them (and in the process we'll find out exactly what that line of code
in our [] method actually does).
yield statement.
Whenever a yield
is executed, it invokes the code in the block. When the block
exits, control picks back up immediately after the
yield.[Programming-language buffs will be pleased to
know that the keyword yield was chosen to echo the yield
function in Liskov's language CLU, a language that is over 20
years old and yet contains features that still haven't been widely
exploited by the CLU-less.] Let's start with a trivial example.
def threeTimes
yield
yield
yield
end
threeTimes { puts "Hello" }
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Hello Hello Hello |
threeTimes. Within this method, yield is
called three times in a row. Each time, it invokes the code in the
block, and a cheery greeting is printed. What makes blocks interesting,
however, is that you can pass parameters to them and receive values
back from them. For example, we could write a simple function that
returns members of the Fibonacci series up to a certain
value.[The basic Fibonacci series is a sequence of integers,
starting with two 1's, in which each subsequent term is the sum
of the two preceding terms. The series is sometimes used in sorting
algorithms and in analyzing natural phenomena.]
def fibUpTo(max)
i1, i2 = 1, 1 # parallel assignment
while i1 <= max
yield i1
i1, i2 = i2, i1+i2
end
end
fibUpTo(1000) { |f| print f, " " }
|
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 |
yield statement has a parameter.
This value
is passed to the associated block. In the definition of the block, the
argument list appears between vertical bars. In this instance, the
variable f receives the value passed to the yield, so the
block prints successive members of the series. (This example also
shows parallel assignment in action. We'll come back to this
on page 75.) Although it is common to pass just one
value to a block, this is not a requirement; a block may have any
number of arguments. What happens if a block has a different number
of parameters than are given to the yield? By a staggering
coincidence, the rules we discuss under parallel assignment come into
play (with a slight twist: multiple parameters passed to a yield
are converted to an array if the block has just one argument).
Parameters to a block may be existing local variables; if so, the new value of the variable will be
retained after the block completes. This may lead to unexpected
behavior, but there is also a performance gain to be had by using
variables that already exist.[For more information on this
and other ``gotchas,'' see the list beginning
on page 127; more performance information begins
on page 128.]
A block may also return a value to the method. The value of the last
expression evaluated in the block is passed back to the method as the
value of the yield. This is how the find method used by class
Array works.[The find method is actually defined
in module Enumerable, which is mixed into class Array.] Its
implementation would look something like the following.
class Array
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def find
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for i in 0...size
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value = self[i]
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return value if yield(value)
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end
|
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return nil
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end
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end
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[1, 3, 5, 7, 9].find {|v| v*v > 30 }
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7
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true, the method returns the corresponding
element. If no element matches, the method returns nil. The example shows
the benefit of this approach to iterators. The Array class does
what it does best, accessing array elements, leaving the application
code to concentrate on its particular requirement (in this case,
finding an entry that meets some mathematical criteria).
Some iterators are common to many types of Ruby collections. We've
looked at find already. Two others are each and
collect.
each is probably the simplest iterator---all it does is yield
successive elements of its collection.
[ 1, 3, 5 ].each { |i| puts i }
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1 3 5 |
each iterator has a special place in Ruby;
on page
85 we'll describe how it's used as the basis of the
language's for loop, and starting on page 102 we'll see how
defining an each method can add a whole lot more
functionality to your class for free.
Another common iterator is collect, which takes each element
from the collection and passes it to the block. The results returned
by the block are
used to construct a new array. For instance:
["H", "A", "L"].collect { |x| x.succ }
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["I", "B", "M"]
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yield
whenever it generates a new value. The thing that uses the iterator is
simply a block of code associated with this method. There is no need
to generate helper classes to carry the iterator state, as in Java and
C++. In this, as in many other ways, Ruby is a transparent
language.
When you write a Ruby program, you concentrate on getting
the job done, not on building scaffolding to support the language
itself.
Iterators are not limited to accessing existing data in arrays and
hashes. As we saw in the Fibonacci example, an iterator can return
derived values. This capability is used by the Ruby input/output
classes, which implement
an iterator interface returning successive lines (or bytes) in an I/O
stream.
f = File.open("testfile")
f.each do |line|
print line
end
f.close
|
This is line one This is line two This is line three And so on... |
inject function.
sumOfValues "Smalltalk method" ^self values inject: 0 into: [ :sum :element | sum + element value] |
inject works like this. The first time the associated block
is called, sum is set to inject's parameter (zero in this case),
and element is set to the first element in the array. The second
and subsequent times the block is called, sum is set to the
value returned by the block on the previous call. This way, sum
can be used to keep a running total. The final value of inject is the
value returned by the block the last time it was called.
Ruby does not have an inject method, but
it's easy to write one. In this case we'll add it to the Array
class, while on page 100 we'll see how to make it more
generally available.
class Array
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def inject(n)
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each { |value| n = yield(n, value) }
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n
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end
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def sum
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inject(0) { |n, value| n + value }
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end
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def product
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inject(1) { |n, value| n * value }
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end
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end
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[ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ].sum
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» |
15
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[ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ].product
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» |
120
|
class File
def File.openAndProcess(*args)
f = File.open(*args)
yield f
f.close()
end
end
File.openAndProcess("testfile", "r") do |aFile|
print while aFile.gets
end
|
This is line one This is line two This is line three And so on... |
openAndProcess method is a class method---it may be
called independent of any particular File object. We want it to
take the same arguments as the conventional
File.open
method,
but we don't really care what those arguments are. Instead, we
specified the arguments as *args, meaning ``collect the actual
parameters passed to the method into an array.'' We then call
File.open, passing it *args as a parameter. This expands the
array back into individual parameters. The net result is that
openAndProcess transparently passes whatever parameters it
received to
File.open
.
Once the file has been opened, openAndProcess calls yield,
passing the open file object to the block. When the block returns, the
file is closed. In this way, the responsibility for closing an open
file has been passed from the user of file objects back to the files
themselves.
Finally, this example uses do...end to define a block. The only
difference between this notation and using braces to define blocks is
precedence: do...end binds lower than ``{...}''. We
discuss the impact of this on page 234.
The technique of having files manage their own lifecycle is so useful
that the class File supplied with Ruby supports it directly. If
File.open
has an associated block, then that block will be
invoked with a file object, and the file will be closed when the block
terminates. This is interesting, as it means that
File.open
has
two different behaviors: when called with a block, it executes the
block and closes the file. When called without a block, it returns the
file object. This is made possible by the method
Kernel::block_given?
, which returns true if a block is associated
with the current method. Using it, you could implement
File.open
(again, ignoring error handling) using something like the following.
class File def File.myOpen(*args) aFile = File.new(*args) # If there's a block, pass in the file and close # the file when it returns if block_given? yield aFile aFile.close aFile = nil end return aFile end end |
bStart = Button.new("Start")
bPause = Button.new("Pause")
# ...
|
Button class, the hardware folks rigged things so that a
callback method, buttonPressed, will be invoked.
The obvious way of adding functionality to these buttons is to create
subclasses of Button and have each subclass implement its own
buttonPressed method.
class StartButton < Button
def initialize
super("Start") # invoke Button's initialize
end
def buttonPressed
# do start actions...
end
end
bStart = StartButton.new
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Button changes, this could
involve us in a lot of maintenance. Second, the actions performed when
a button is pressed are expressed at the wrong level; they are not a
feature of the button, but are a feature of the jukebox that uses the
buttons. We can fix both of these problems using blocks.
class JukeboxButton < Button
def initialize(label, &action)
super(label)
@action = action
end
def buttonPressed
@action.call(self)
end
end
bStart = JukeboxButton.new("Start") { songList.start }
bPause = JukeboxButton.new("Pause") { songList.pause }
|
JukeboxButton#initialize. If the last parameter in a method
definition is prefixed with an ampersand (such as &action),
Ruby
looks for a code block whenever that method is called. That code block
is converted to an object of class Proc and assigned to the
parameter. You can then treat the parameter as any other variable. In
our example, we assigned it to the instance variable @action.
When the callback method buttonPressed is invoked, we use the
Proc#call
method on that object to invoke the block.
So what exactly do we have when we create a Proc object? The
interesting thing is that it's more than just a chunk of code.
Associated with a block (and hence a Proc object) is all the
context in which the block was defined: the value of
self, and the methods, variables, and constants in scope. Part
of the magic of Ruby is that the block can still use all this original
scope information even if the environment in which it was defined
would otherwise have disappeared. In other languages, this facility
is called a closure.
Let's look at a contrived example. This example uses the method
proc,
which converts a block to a Proc object.
def nTimes(aThing)
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return proc { |n| aThing * n }
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end
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p1 = nTimes(23)
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p1.call(3)
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» |
69
|
p1.call(4)
|
» |
92
|
p2 = nTimes("Hello ")
|
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p2.call(3)
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» |
"Hello Hello Hello "
|
nTimes returns a Proc object that references
the method's parameter, aThing. Even though that parameter is out
of scope by the time the block is called, the parameter remains
accessible to the block.
| Previous < |
Contents ^
|
Next >
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