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CHAPTER 8

Classes


Class declarations define new reference types and describe how they are implemented (§8.1).

The name of a class has as its scope all type declarations in the package in which the class is declared (§8.1.1). A class may be declared abstract (§8.1.2.1) and must be declared abstract if it is incompletely implemented; such a class cannot be instantiated, but can be extended by subclasses. A class may be declared final (§8.1.2.2), in which case it cannot have subclasses. If a class is declared public, then it can be referred to from other packages.

Each class except Object is an extension of (that is, a subclass of) a single existing class (§8.1.3) and may implement interfaces (§8.1.4).

The body of a class declares members (fields and methods), static initializers, and constructors (§8.1.5). The scope of the name of a member is the entire declaration of the class to which the member belongs. Field, method, and constructor declarations may include the access modifiers (§6.6) public, protected, or private. The members of a class include both declared and inherited members (§8.2). Newly declared fields can hide fields declared in a superclass or superinterface. Newly declared methods can hide, implement, or override methods declared in a superclass or superinterface.

Field declarations (§8.3) describe class variables, which are incarnated once, and instance variables, which are freshly incarnated for each instance of the class. A field may be declared final (§8.3.1.2), in which case it cannot be assigned to except as part of its declaration. Any field declaration may include an initializer; the declaration of a final field must include an initializer.

Method declarations (§8.4) describe code that may be invoked by method invocation expressions (§15.11). A class method is invoked relative to the class type; an instance method is invoked with respect to some particular object that is an instance of the class type. A method whose declaration does not indicate how it is implemented must be declared abstract. A method may be declared final (§8.4.3.3), in which case it cannot be hidden or overridden. A method may be implemented by platform-dependent native code (§8.4.3.4). A synchronized method (§8.4.3.5) automatically locks an object before executing its body and automatically unlocks the object on return, as if by use of a synchronized statement (§14.17), thus allowing its activities to be synchronized with those of other threads (§17).

Method names may be overloaded (§8.4.7).

Static initializers (§8.5) are blocks of executable code that may be used to help initialize a class when it is first loaded (§12.4).

Constructors (§8.6) are similar to methods, but cannot be invoked directly by a method call; they are used to initialize new class instances. Like methods, they may be overloaded (§8.6.6).

8.1 Class Declaration

A class declaration specifies a new reference type:

If a class is declared in a named package (§7.4.1) with fully qualified name P (§6.7), then the class has the fully qualified name P.Identifier. If the class is in an unnamed package (§7.4.2), then the class has the fully qualified name Identifier. In the example:

class Point { int x, y; }
the class Point is declared in a compilation unit with no package statement, and thus Point is its fully qualified name, whereas in the example:


package vista;
class Point { int x, y; }
the fully qualified name of the class Point is vista.Point. (The package name vista is suitable for local or personal use; if the package were intended to be widely distributed, it would be better to give it a unique package name (§7.7).)

A compile-time error occurs if the Identifier naming a class appears as the name of any other class type or interface type declared in the same package (§7.6).

A compile-time error occurs if the Identifier naming a class is also declared as a type by a single-type-import declaration (§7.5.1) in the compilation unit (§7.3) containing the class declaration.

In the example:


package test;

import java.util.Vector;
class Point { int x, y; }
interface Point { // compile-time error #1 int getR(); int getTheta(); }
class Vector { Point[] pts; } // compile-time error #2
the first compile-time error is caused by the duplicate declaration of the name Point as both a class and an interface in the same package. A second error detected at compile time is the attempt to declare the name Vector both by a class type declaration and by a single-type-import declaration.

Note, however, that it is not an error for the Identifier that names a class also to name a type that otherwise might be imported by a type-import-on-demand declaration (§7.5.2) in the compilation unit (§7.3) containing the class declaration. In the example:


package test;

import java.util.*;
class Vector { Point[] pts; } // not a compile-time error
the declaration of the class Vector is permitted even though there is also a class java.util.Vector. Within this compilation unit, the simple name Vector refers to the class test.Vector, not to java.util.Vector (which can still be referred to by code within the compilation unit, but only by its fully qualified name).

8.1.1 Scope of a Class Type Name

The Identifier in a class declaration specifies the name of the class. This class name has as its scope (§6.3) the entire package in which the class is declared. As an example, the compilation unit:


package points;

class Point {
	int x, y;									// coordinates
	PointColor color;									// color of this point
	Point next;									// next point with this color
static int nPoints; }
class PointColor { Point first; // first point with this color PointColor(int color) { this.color = color; } private int color; // color components }
defines two classes that use each other in the declarations of their class members. Because the class type names Point and PointColor have the entire package points, including the entire current compilation unit, as their scope, this example compiles correctly-that is, forward reference is not a problem.

8.1.2 Class Modifiers

A class declaration may include class modifiers.

The access modifier public is discussed in §6.6. A compile-time error occurs if the same modifier appears more than once in a class declaration. If two or more class modifiers appear in a class declaration, then it is customary, though not required, that they appear in the order consistent with that shown above in the production for ClassModifier.

8.1.2.1 abstract Classes

An abstract class is a class that is incomplete, or to be considered incomplete. Only abstract classes may have abstract methods (§8.4.3.1, §9.4), that is, methods that are declared but not yet implemented. If a class that is not abstract contains an abstract method, then a compile-time error occurs. A class has abstract methods if any of the following is true:

In the example:


abstract class Point {
	int x = 1, y = 1;
	void move(int dx, int dy) {
		x += dx;
		y += dy;
		alert();
	}
	abstract void alert();
}

abstract class ColoredPoint extends Point { int color; }
class SimplePoint extends Point { void alert() { } }
a class Point is declared that must be declared abstract, because it contains a declaration of an abstract method named alert. The subclass of Point named ColoredPoint inherits the abstract method alert, so it must also be declared abstract. On the other hand, the subclass of Point named SimplePoint provides an implementation of alert, so it need not be abstract.

A compile-time error occurs if an attempt is made to create an instance of an abstract class using a class instance creation expression (§15.8). An attempt to instantiate an abstract class using the newInstance method of class Class (§20.3.6) will cause an InstantiationException (§11.5.1) to be thrown. Thus, continuing the example just shown, the statement:

	Point p = new Point();
would result in a compile-time error; the class Point cannot be instantiated because it is abstract. However, a Point variable could correctly be initialized with a reference to any subclass of Point, and the class SimplePoint is not abstract, so the statement:

	Point p = new SimplePoint();
would be correct.

A subclass of an abstract class that is not itself abstract may be instantiated, resulting in the execution of a constructor for the abstract class and, therefore, the execution of the field initializers for instance variables of that class. Thus, in the example just given, instantiation of a SimplePoint causes the default constructor and field initializers for x and y of Point to be executed.

It is a compile-time error to declare an abstract class type such that it is not possible to create a subclass that implements all of its abstract methods. This situation can occur if the class would have as members two abstract methods that have the same method signature (§8.4.2) but different return types. As an example, the declarations:


interface Colorable { void setColor(int color); }

abstract class Colored implements Colorable {
	abstract int setColor(int color);
}
result in a compile-time error: it would be impossible for any subclass of class Colored to provide an implementation of a method named setColor, taking one argument of type int, that can satisfy both abstract method specifications, because the one in interface Colorable requires the same method to return no value, while the one in class Colored requires the same method to return a value of type int (§8.4).

A class type should be declared abstract only if the intent is that subclasses can be created to complete the implementation. If the intent is simply to prevent instantiation of a class, the proper way to express this is to declare a constructor (§8.6.8) of no arguments, make it private, never invoke it, and declare no other constructors. A class of this form usually contains class methods and variables. The class java.lang.Math is an example of a class that cannot be instantiated; its declaration looks like this:


public final class Math {

private Math() { } // never instantiate this class

. . . declarations of class variables and methods . . .
}

8.1.2.2 final Classes

A class can be declared final if its definition is complete and no subclasses are desired or required. A compile-time error occurs if the name of a final class appears in the extends clause (§8.1.3) of another class declaration; this implies that a final class cannot have any subclasses. A compile-time error occurs if a class is declared both final and abstract, because the implementation of such a class could never be completed (§8.1.2.1).

Because a final class never has any subclasses, the methods of a final class are never overridden (§8.4.6.1).

8.1.3 Superclasses and Subclasses

The optional extends clause in a class declaration specifies the direct superclass of the current class. A class is said to be a direct subclass of the class it extends. The direct superclass is the class from whose implementation the implementation of the current class is derived. The extends clause must not appear in the definition of the class java.lang.Object (§20.1), because it is the primordial class and has no direct superclass. If the class declaration for any other class has no extends clause, then the class has the class java.lang.Object as its implicit direct superclass.

The following is repeated from §4.3 to make the presentation here clearer:

The ClassType must name an accessible (§6.6) class type, or a compile-time error occurs. All classes in the current package are accessible. Classes in other packages are accessible if the host system permits access to the package (§7.2) and the class is declared public. If the specified ClassType names a class that is final (§8.1.2.2), then a compile-time error occurs; final classes are not allowed to have subclasses.

In the example:


class Point { int x, y; }

final class ColoredPoint extends Point { int color; }
class Colored3DPoint extends ColoredPoint { int z; } // error
the relationships are as follows:

The declaration of class Colored3dPoint causes a compile-time error because it attempts to extend the final class ColoredPoint.

The subclass relationship is the transitive closure of the direct subclass relationship. A class A is a subclass of class C if either of the following is true:

Class C is said to be a superclass of class A whenever A is a subclass of C.

In the example:


class Point { int x, y; }

class ColoredPoint extends Point { int color; }
final class Colored3dPoint extends ColoredPoint { int z; }
the relationships are as follows:

A compile-time error occurs if a class is declared to be a subclass of itself. For example:


class Point extends ColoredPoint { int x, y; }
class ColoredPoint extends Point { int color; }
causes a compile-time error. If circularly declared classes are detected at run time, as classes are loaded (§12.2), then a ClassCircularityError is thrown.

8.1.4 Superinterfaces

The optional implements clause in a class declaration lists the names of interfaces that are direct superinterfaces of the class being declared:

The following is repeated from §4.3 to make the presentation here clearer:

Each InterfaceType must name an accessible (§6.6) interface type, or a compile- time error occurs. All interfaces in the current package are accessible. Interfaces in other packages are accessible if the host system permits access to the package (§7.4.4) and the interface is declared public.

A compile-time error occurs if the same interface is mentioned two or more times in a single implements clause, even if the interface is named in different ways; for example, the code:


class Redundant implements java.lang.Cloneable, Cloneable {
	int x;
}
results in a compile-time error because the names java.lang.Cloneable and Cloneable refer to the same interface.

An interface type I is a superinterface of class type C if any of the following is true:

A class is said to implement all its superinterfaces.

In the example:


public interface Colorable {
	void setColor(int color);
	int getColor();
}

public interface Paintable extends Colorable { int MATTE = 0, GLOSSY = 1; void setFinish(int finish); int getFinish(); }

class Point { int x, y; }
class ColoredPoint extends Point implements Colorable { int color; public void setColor(int color) { this.color = color; } public int getColor() { return color; } }
class PaintedPoint extends ColoredPoint implements Paintable
{ int finish; public void setFinish(int finish) { this.finish = finish; } public int getFinish() { return finish; } }
the relationships are as follows:

A class can have a superinterface in more than one way. In this example, the class PaintedPoint has Colorable as a superinterface both because it is a superinterface of ColoredPoint and because it is a superinterface of Paintable.

Unless the class being declared is abstract, the declarations of the methods defined in each direct superinterface must be implemented either by a declaration in this class or by an existing method declaration inherited from the direct superclass, because a class that is not abstract is not permitted to have abstract methods (§8.1.2.1).

Thus, the example:


interface Colorable {
	void setColor(int color);
	int getColor();
}


class Point { int x, y; };
class ColoredPoint extends Point implements Colorable { int color; }
causes a compile-time error, because ColoredPoint is not an abstract class but it fails to provide an implementation of methods setColor and getColor of the interface Colorable.

It is permitted for a single method declaration in a class to implement methods of more than one superinterface. For example, in the code:


interface Fish { int getNumberOfScales(); }

interface Piano { int getNumberOfScales(); }

class Tuna implements Fish, Piano {
	// You can tune a piano, but can you tuna fish?
	int getNumberOfScales() { return 91; }
}
the method getNumberOfScales in class Tuna has a name, signature, and return type that matches the method declared in interface Fish and also matches the method declared in interface Piano; it is considered to implement both.

On the other hand, in a situation such as this:


interface Fish { int getNumberOfScales(); }

interface StringBass { double getNumberOfScales(); }

class Bass implements Fish, StringBass {
	// This declaration cannot be correct, no matter what type is used.
	public ??? getNumberOfScales() { return 91; }
}
it is impossible to declare a method named getNumberOfScales with the same signature and return type as those of both the methods declared in interface Fish and in interface StringBass, because a class can have only one method with a given signature (§8.4). Therefore, it is impossible for a single class to implement both interface Fish and interface StringBass (§8.4.6).

8.1.5 Class Body and Member Declarations

A class body may contain declarations of members of the class, that is, fields (§8.3) and methods (§8.4). A class body may also contain static initializers (§8.5) and declarations of constructors (§8.6) for the class.

The scope of the name of a member declared in or inherited by a class type is the entire body of the class type declaration.

8.2 Class Members

The members of a class type are all of the following:

Members of a class that are declared private are not inherited by subclasses of that class. Only members of a class that are declared protected or public are inherited by subclasses declared in a package other than the one in which the class is declared.

Constructors and static initializers are not members and therefore are not inherited.

The example:


class Point {
	int x, y;
	private Point() { reset(); }
	Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }
	private void reset() { this.x = 0; this.y = 0; }
}

class ColoredPoint extends Point { int color; void clear() { reset(); } // error }
class Test { public static void main(String[] args) { ColoredPoint c = new ColoredPoint(0, 0); // error c.reset(); // error } }
causes four compile-time errors:

8.2.1 Examples of Inheritance

This section illustrates inheritance of class members through several examples.

8.2.1.1 Example: Inheritance with Default Access

Consider the example where the points package declares two compilation units:


package points;

public class Point {
	int x, y;
public void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; } }
and:


package points;

public class Point3d extends Point {
	int z;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz) {
		x += dx; y += dy; z += dz;
	}
}
and a third compilation unit, in another package, is:


import points.Point3d;

class Point4d extends Point3d {
	int w;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz, int dw) {
		x += dx; y += dy; z += dz; w += dw; // compile-time errors
	}
}
Here both classes in the points package compile. The class Point3d inherits the fields x and y of class Point, because it is in the same package as Point. The class Point4d, which is in a different package, does not inherit the fields x and y of class Point or the field z of class Point3d, and so fails to compile.

A better way to write the third compilation unit would be:


import points.Point3d;

class Point4d extends Point3d {
	int w;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz, int dw) {
		super.move(dx, dy, dz); w += dw;
	}
}
using the move method of the superclass Point3d to process dx, dy, and dz. If Point4d is written in this way it will compile without errors.

8.2.1.2 Inheritance with public and protected

Given the class Point:


package points;

public class Point {

public int x, y;

protected int useCount = 0;

static protected int totalUseCount = 0;
public void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; useCount++; totalUseCount++; }
}
the public and protected fields x, y, useCount and totalUseCount are inherited in all subclasses of Point. Therefore, this test program, in another package, can be compiled successfully:


class Test extends points.Point {
	public void moveBack(int dx, int dy) {
		x -= dx; y -= dy; useCount++; totalUseCount++;
	}
}

8.2.1.3 Inheritance with private

In the example:


class Point {

int x, y;
void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; totalMoves++; }

private static int totalMoves;

void printMoves() { System.out.println(totalMoves); }
}
class Point3d extends Point {
int z;
void move(int dx, int dy, int dz) { super.move(dx, dy); z += dz; totalMoves++; }
}
the class variable totalMoves can be used only within the class Point; it is not inherited by the subclass Point3d. A compile-time error occurs at the point where method move of class Point3d tries to increment totalMoves.

8.2.1.4 Accessing Members of Inaccessible Classes

Even though a class might not be declared public, instances of the class might be available at run time to code outside the package in which it is declared if it has a public superclass or superinterface. An instance of the class can be assigned to a variable of such a public type. An invocation of a public method of the object referred to by such a variable may invoke a method of the class if it implements or overrides a method of the public superclass or superinterface. (In this situation, the method is necessarily declared public, even though it is declared in a class that is not public.)

Consider the compilation unit:


package points;

public class Point {
	public int x, y;
	public void move(int dx, int dy) {
		x += dx; y += dy;
	}
}
and another compilation unit of another package:


package morePoints;

class Point3d extends points.Point {
	public int z;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz) {
		super.move(dx, dy); z += dz;
	}
}

public class OnePoint { static points.Point getOne() { return new Point3d(); } }
An invocation morePoints.OnePoint.getOne() in yet a third package would return a Point3d that can be used as a Point, even though the type Point3d is not available outside the package morePoints. The method move could then be invoked for that object, which is permissible because method move of Point3d is public (as it must be, for any method that overrides a public method must itself be public, precisely so that situations such as this will work out correctly). The fields x and y of that object could also be accessed from such a third package.

While the field z of class Point3d is public, it is not possible to access this field from code outside the package morePoints, given only a reference to an instance of class Point3d in a variable p of type Point. This is because the expression p.z is not correct, as p has type Point and class Point has no field named z; also, the expression ((Point3d)p).z is not correct, because the class type Point3d cannot be referred to outside package morePoints. The declaration of the field z as public is not useless, however. If there were to be, in package morePoints, a public subclass Point4d of the class Point3d:


package morePoints;

public class Point4d extends Point3d {
	public int w;
	public void move(int dx, int dy, int dz, int dw) {
		super.move(dx, dy, dz); w += dw;
	}
}

then class Point4d would inherit the field z, which, being public, could then be accessed by code in packages other than morePoints, through variables and expressions of the public type Point4d.

8.3 Field Declarations

The variables of a class type are introduced by field declarations:

The FieldModifiers are described in §8.3.1. The Identifier in a FieldDeclarator may be used in a name to refer to the field. The name of a field has as its scope (§6.3) the entire body of the class declaration in which it is declared. More than one field may be declared in a single field declaration by using more than one declarator; the FieldModifiers and Type apply to all the declarators in the declaration. Variable declarations involving array types are discussed in §10.2.

It is a compile-time error for the body of a class declaration to contain declarations of two fields with the same name. Methods and fields may have the same name, since they are used in different contexts and are disambiguated by the different lookup procedures (§6.5).

If the class declares a field with a certain name, then the declaration of that field is said to hide (§6.3.1) any and all accessible declarations of fields with the same name in the superclasses and superinterfaces of the class.

If a field declaration hides the declaration of another field, the two fields need not have the same type.

A class inherits from its direct superclass and direct superinterfaces all the fields of the superclass and superinterfaces that are both accessible to code in the class and not hidden by a declaration in the class.

It is possible for a class to inherit more than one field with the same name (§8.3.3.3). Such a situation does not in itself cause a compile-time error. However, any attempt within the body of the class to refer to any such field by its simple name will result in a compile-time error, because such a reference is ambiguous.

There might be several paths by which the same field declaration might be inherited from an interface. In such a situation, the field is considered to be inherited only once, and it may be referred to by its simple name without ambiguity.

A hidden field can be accessed by using a qualified name (if it is static) or by using a field access expression (§15.10) that contains the keyword super or a cast to a superclass type. See §15.10.2 for discussion and an example.

8.3.1 Field Modifiers

The access modifiers public, protected, and private are discussed in §6.6. A compile-time error occurs if the same modifier appears more than once in a field declaration, or if a field declaration has more than one of the access modifiers public, protected, and private. If two or more (distinct) field modifiers appear in a field declaration, it is customary, though not required, that they appear in the order consistent with that shown above in the production for FieldModifier.

8.3.1.1 static Fields

If a field is declared static, there exists exactly one incarnation of the field, no matter how many instances (possibly zero) of the class may eventually be created. A static field, sometimes called a class variable, is incarnated when the class is initialized (§12.4).

A field that is not declared static (sometimes called a non-static field) is called an instance variable. Whenever a new instance of a class is created, a new variable associated with that instance is created for every instance variable declared in that class or any of its superclasses.

The example program:


class Point {
	int x, y, useCount;
	Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }
	final static Point origin = new Point(0, 0);
}

class Test { public static void main(String[] args) { Point p = new Point(1,1); Point q = new Point(2,2); p.x = 3; p.y = 3; p.useCount++; p.origin.useCount++; System.out.println("(" + q.x + "," + q.y + ")"); System.out.println(q.useCount); System.out.println(q.origin == Point.origin); System.out.println(q.origin.useCount); } }
prints:


(2,2)
0
true
1
showing that changing the fields x, y, and useCount of p does not affect the fields of q, because these fields are instance variables in distinct objects. In this example, the class variable origin of the class Point is referenced both using the class name as a qualifier, in Point.origin, and using variables of the class type in field access expressions (§15.10), as in p.origin and q.origin. These two ways of accessing the origin class variable access the same object, evidenced by the fact that the value of the reference equality expression (§15.20.3):

q.origin==Point.origin
is true. Further evidence is that the incrementation:

p.origin.useCount++;
causes the value of q.origin.useCount to be 1; this is so because p.origin and q.origin refer to the same variable.

8.3.1.2 final Fields

A field can be declared final, in which case its declarator must include a variable initializer or a compile-time error occurs. Both class and instance variables (static and non-static fields) may be declared final.

Any attempt to assign to a final field results in a compile-time error. Therefore, once a final field has been initialized, it always contains the same value. If a final field holds a reference to an object, then the state of the object may be changed by operations on the object, but the field will always refer to the same object. This applies also to arrays, because arrays are objects; if a final field holds a reference to an array, then the components of the array may be changed by operations on the array, but the field will always refer to the same array.

Declaring a field final can serve as useful documentation that its value will not change, can help to avoid programming errors, and can make it easier for a compiler to generate efficient code.

In the example:


class Point {
	int x, y;
	int useCount;
	Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }
	final static Point origin = new Point(0, 0);
}
the class Point declares a final class variable origin. The origin variable holds a reference to an object that is an instance of class Point whose coordinates are (0, 0). The value of the variable Point.origin can never change, so it always refers to the same Point object, the one created by its initializer. However, an operation on this Point object might change its state-for example, modifying its useCount or even, misleadingly, its x or y coordinate.

8.3.1.3 transient Fields

Variables may be marked transient to indicate that they are not part of the persistent state of an object. If an instance of the class Point:


class Point {
	int x, y;
	transient float rho, theta;
}
were saved to persistent storage by a system service, then only the fields x and y would be saved. This specification does not yet specify details of such services; we intend to provide them in a future version of this specification.

8.3.1.4 volatile Fields

As described in §17, the Java language allows threads that access shared variables to keep private working copies of the variables; this allows a more efficient implementation of multiple threads. These working copies need be reconciled with the master copies in the shared main memory only at prescribed synchronization points, namely when objects are locked or unlocked. As a rule, to ensure that shared variables are consistently and reliably updated, a thread should ensure that it has exclusive use of such variables by obtaining a lock that, conventionally, enforces mutual exclusion for those shared variables.

Java provides a second mechanism that is more convenient for some purposes: a field may be declared volatile, in which case a thread must reconcile its working copy of the field with the master copy every time it accesses the variable. Moreover, operations on the master copies of one or more volatile variables on behalf of a thread are performed by the main memory in exactly the order that the thread requested.

If, in the following example, one thread repeatedly calls the method one (but no more than Integer.MAX_VALUE (§20.7.2) times in all), and another thread repeatedly calls the method two:


class Test {

static int i = 0, j = 0;
static void one() { i++; j++; } static void two() { System.out.println("i=" + i + " j=" + j); }
}
then method two could occasionally print a value for j that is greater than the value of i, because the example includes no synchronization and, under the rules explained in §17, the shared values of i and j might be updated out of order.

One way to prevent this out-or-order behavior would be to declare methods one and two to be synchronized (§8.4.3.5):


class Test {

static int i = 0, j = 0;
static synchronized void one() { i++; j++; } static synchronized void two() { System.out.println("i=" + i + " j=" + j); }
}
This prevents method one and method two from being executed concurrently, and furthermore guarantees that the shared values of i and j are both updated before method one returns. Therefore method two never observes a value for j greater than that for i; indeed, it always observes the same value for i and j.

Another approach would be to declare i and j to be volatile:


class Test {

static volatile int i = 0, j = 0;
static void one() { i++; j++; } static void two() { System.out.println("i=" + i + " j=" + j); }
}
This allows method one and method two to be executed concurrently, but guarantees that accesses to the shared values for i and j occur exactly as many times, and in exactly the same order, as they appear to occur during execution of the program text by each thread. Therefore, method two never observes a value for j greater than that for i, because each update to i must be reflected in the shared value for i before the update to j occurs. It is possible, however, that any given invocation of method two might observe a value for j that is much greater than the value observed for i, because method one might be executed many times between the moment when method two fetches the value of i and the moment when method two fetches the value of j.

See §17 for more discussion and examples.

A compile-time error occurs if a final variable is also declared volatile.

8.3.2 Initialization of Fields

If a field declarator contains a variable initializer, then it has the semantics of an assignment (§15.25) to the declared variable, and:

The example:


class Point {
	int x = 1, y = 5;
}

class Test { public static void main(String[] args) { Point p = new Point(); System.out.println(p.x + ", " + p.y); } }
produces the output:

1, 5
because the assignments to x and y occur whenever a new Point is created.

Variable initializers are also used in local variable declaration statements (§14.3), where the initializer is evaluated and the assignment performed each time the local variable declaration statement is executed.

It is a compile-time error if the evaluation of a variable initializer for a field of a class (or interface) can complete abruptly with a checked exception (§11.2).

8.3.2.1 Initializers for Class Variables

A compile-time error occurs if an initialization expression for a class variable contains a use by a simple name of that class variable or of another class variable whose declaration occurs to its right (that is, textually later) in the same class. Thus:


class Test {
	static float f = j;							// compile-time error: forward reference
	static int j = 1;
	static int k = k+1;							// compile-time error: forward reference
}
causes two compile-time errors, because j is referred to in the initialization of f before j is declared and because the initialization of k refers to k itself.

If a reference by simple name to any instance variable occurs in an initialization expression for a class variable, then a compile-time error occurs.

If the keyword this (§15.7.2) or the keyword super (§15.10.2, §15.11) occurs in an initialization expression for a class variable, then a compile-time error occurs.

(One subtlety here is that, at run time, static variables that are final and that are initialized with compile-time constant values are initialized first. This also applies to such fields in interfaces (§9.3.1). These variables are "constants" that will never be observed to have their default initial values (§4.5.4), even by devious programs. See §12.4.2 and §13.4.8 for more discussion.)

8.3.2.2 Initializers for Instance Variables

A compile-time error occurs if an initialization expression for an instance variable contains a use by a simple name of that instance variable or of another instance variable whose declaration occurs to its right (that is, textually later) in the same class. Thus:


class Test {
	float f = j;
	int j = 1;
	int k = k+1;
}
causes two compile-time errors, because j is referred to in the initialization of f before j is declared and because the initialization of k refers to k itself.

Initialization expressions for instance variables may use the simple name of any static variable declared in or inherited by the class, even one whose declaration occurs textually later. Thus the example:


class Test {
	float f = j;
	static int j = 1;
}
compiles without error; it initializes j to 1 when class Test is initialized, and initializes f to the current value of j every time an instance of class Test is created.

Initialization expressions for instance variables are permitted to refer to the current object this (§15.7.2) and to use the keyword super (§15.10.2, §15.11).

8.3.3 Examples of Field Declarations

The following examples illustrate some (possibly subtle) points about field declarations.

8.3.3.1 Example: Hiding of Class Variables

The example:


class Point {
	static int x = 2;
}

class Test extends Point { static double x = 4.7; public static void main(String[] args) {
new Test().printX(); } void printX() { System.out.println(x + " " + super.x); } }
produces the output:

4.7 2
because the declaration of x in class Test hides the definition of x in class Point, so class Test does not inherit the field x from its superclass Point. Within the declaration of class Test, the simple name x refers to the field declared within class Test. Code in class Test may refer to the field x of class Point as super.x (or, because x is static, as Point.x). If the declaration of Test.x is deleted:


class Point {
	static int x = 2;
}

class Test extends Point { public static void main(String[] args) { new Test().printX(); } void printX() { System.out.println(x + " " + super.x); } }
then the field x of class Point is no longer hidden within class Test; instead, the simple name x now refers to the field Point.x. Code in class Test may still refer to that same field as super.x. Therefore, the output from this variant program is:

2 2

8.3.3.2 Example: Hiding of Instance Variables

This example is similar to that in the previous section, but uses instance variables rather than static variables. The code:


class Point {
	int x = 2;
}

class Test extends Point { double x = 4.7; void printBoth() { System.out.println(x + " " + super.x); } public static void main(String[] args) { Test sample = new Test(); sample.printBoth(); System.out.println(sample.x + " " +
((Point)sample).x); } }
produces the output:


4.7 2
4.7 2
because the declaration of x in class Test hides the definition of x in class Point, so class Test does not inherit the field x from its superclass Point. It must be noted, however, that while the field x of class Point is not inherited by class Test, it is nevertheless implemented by instances of class Test. In other words, every instance of class Test contains two fields, one of type int and one of type float. Both fields bear the name x, but within the declaration of class Test, the simple name x always refers to the field declared within class Test. Code in instance methods of class Test may refer to the instance variable x of class Point as super.x.

Code that uses a field access expression to access field x will access the field named x in the class indicated by the type of reference expression. Thus, the expression sample.x accesses a float value, the instance variable declared in class Test, because the type of the variable sample is Test, but the expression ((Point)sample).x accesses an int value, the instance variable declared in class Point, because of the cast to type Point.

If the declaration of x is deleted from class Test, as in the program:


class Point {
	static int x = 2;
}

class Test extends Point { void printBoth() { System.out.println(x + " " + super.x); } public static void main(String[] args) { Test sample = new Test(); sample.printBoth(); System.out.println(sample.x + " " +
((Point)sample).x); } }
then the field x of class Point is no longer hidden within class Test. Within instance methods in the declaration of class Test, the simple name x now refers to the field declared within class Point. Code in class Test may still refer to that same field as super.x. The expression sample.x still refers to the field x within type Test, but that field is now an inherited field, and so refers to the field x declared in class Point. The output from this variant program is:


2 2
2 2

8.3.3.3 Example: Multiply Inherited Fields

A class may inherit two or more fields with the same name, either from two interfaces or from its superclass and an interface. A compile-time error occurs on any attempt to refer to any ambiguously inherited field by its simple name. A qualified name or a field access expression that contains the keyword super (§15.10.2) may be used to access such fields unambiguously. In the example:


interface Frob { float v = 2.0f; }

class SuperTest { int v = 3; }

class Test extends SuperTest implements Frob {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		new Test().printV();
	}
	void printV() { System.out.println(v); }
}
the class Test inherits two fields named v, one from its superclass SuperTest and one from its superinterface Frob. This in itself is permitted, but a compile-time error occurs because of the use of the simple name v in method printV: it cannot be determined which v is intended.

The following variation uses the field access expression super.v to refer to the field named v declared in class SuperTest and uses the qualified name Frob.v to refer to the field named v declared in interface Frob:


interface Frob { float v = 2.0f; }

class SuperTest { int v = 3; }

class Test extends SuperTest implements Frob {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		new Test().printV();
	}
	void printV() {
		System.out.println((super.v + Frob.v)/2);
	}
}
It compiles and prints:

2.5
Even if two distinct inherited fields have the same type, the same value, and are both final, any reference to either field by simple name is considered ambiguous and results in a compile-time error. In the example:


interface Color { int RED=0, GREEN=1, BLUE=2; }

interface TrafficLight { int RED=0, YELLOW=1, GREEN=2; }

class Test implements Color, TrafficLight {
	public static void main(String[] args) {
		System.out.println(GREEN);										// compile-time error
		System.out.println(RED);										// compile-time error
	}
}
it is not astonishing that the reference to GREEN should be considered ambiguous, because class Test inherits two different declarations for GREEN with different values. The point of this example is that the reference to RED is also considered ambiguous, because two distinct declarations are inherited. The fact that the two fields named RED happen to have the same type and the same unchanging value does not affect this judgment.

8.3.3.4 Example: Re-inheritance of Fields

If the same field declaration is inherited from an interface by multiple paths, the field is considered to be inherited only once. It may be referred to by its simple name without ambiguity. For example, in the code:


public interface Colorable {
	int RED = 0xff0000, GREEN = 0x00ff00, BLUE = 0x0000ff;
}

public interface Paintable extends Colorable { int MATTE = 0, GLOSSY = 1; }

class Point { int x, y; }
class ColoredPoint extends Point implements Colorable { . . . }
class PaintedPoint extends ColoredPoint implements Paintable { . . . RED . . . }
the fields RED, GREEN, and BLUE are inherited by the class PaintedPoint both through its direct superclass ColoredPoint and through its direct superinterface Paintable. The simple names RED, GREEN, and BLUE may nevertheless be used without ambiguity within the class PaintedPoint to refer to the fields declared in interface Colorable.

8.4 Method Declarations

A method declares executable code that can be invoked, passing a fixed number of values as arguments.

The MethodModifiers are described in §8.4.3, the Throws clause in §8.4.4, and the MethodBody in §8.4.5. A method declaration either specifies the type of value that the method returns or uses the keyword void to indicate that the method does not return a value.

The Identifier in a MethodDeclarator may be used in a name to refer to the method. A class can declare a method with the same name as the class or a field of the class.

For compatibility with older versions of Java, a declaration form for a method that returns an array is allowed to place (some or all of) the empty bracket pairs that form the declaration of the array type after the parameter list. This is supported by the obsolescent production:

but should not be used in new Java code.

It is a compile-time error for the body of a class to have as members two methods with the same signature (§8.4.2) (name, number of parameters, and types of any parameters). Methods and fields may have the same name, since they are used in different contexts and are disambiguated by the different lookup procedures (§6.5).

8.4.1 Formal Parameters

The formal parameters of a method, if any, are specified by a list of comma-separated parameter specifiers. Each parameter specifier consists of a type and an identifier (optionally followed by brackets) that specifies the name of the parameter:

The following is repeated from §8.3 to make the presentation here clearer:

If a method has no parameters, only an empty pair of parentheses appears in the method's declaration.

If two formal parameters are declared to have the same name (that is, their declarations mention the same Identifier), then a compile-time error occurs.

When the method is invoked (§15.11), the values of the actual argument expressions initialize newly created parameter variables, each of the declared Type, before execution of the body of the method. The Identifier that appears in the DeclaratorId may be used as a simple name in the body of the method to refer to the formal parameter.

The scope of formal parameter names is the entire body of the method. These parameter names may not be redeclared as local variables or exception parameters within the method; that is, hiding the name of a parameter is not permitted.

Formal parameters are referred to only using simple names, never by using qualified names (§6.6).

8.4.2 Method Signature

The signature of a method consists of the name of the method and the number and types of formal parameters to the method. A class may not declare two methods with the same signature, or a compile-time error occurs. The example:


class Point implements Move {
	int x, y;
	abstract void move(int dx, int dy);
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}
causes a compile-time error because it declares two move methods with the same signature. This is an error even though one of the declarations is abstract.

8.4.3 Method Modifiers

The access modifiers public, protected, and private are discussed in §6.6. A compile-time error occurs if the same modifier appears more than once in a method declaration, or if a method declaration has more than one of the access modifiers public, protected, and private. A compile-time error occurs if a method declaration that contains the keyword abstract also contains any one of the keywords private, static, final, native, or synchronized.

If two or more method modifiers appear in a method declaration, it is customary, though not required, that they appear in the order consistent with that shown above in the production for MethodModifier.

8.4.3.1 abstract Methods

An abstract method declaration introduces the method as a member, providing its signature (name and number and type of parameters), return type, and throws clause (if any), but does not provide an implementation. The declaration of an abstract method m must appear within an abstract class (call it A); otherwise a compile-time error results. Every subclass of A that is not abstract must provide an implementation for m, or a compile-time error occurs. More precisely, for every subclass C of the abstract class A, if C is not abstract, then there must be some class B such that all of the following are true:

If there is no such class B, then a compile-time error occurs.

It is a compile-time error for a private method to be declared abstract. It would be impossible for a subclass to implement a private abstract method, because private methods are not visible to subclasses; therefore such a method could never be used.

It is a compile-time error for a static method to be declared abstract.

It is a compile-time error for a final method to be declared abstract.

An abstract class can override an abstract method by providing another abstract method declaration. This can provide a place to put a documentation comment (§18), or to declare that the set of checked exceptions (§11.2) that can be thrown by that method, when it is implemented by its subclasses, is to be more limited. For example, consider this code:


class BufferEmpty extends Exception {
	BufferEmpty() { super(); }
	BufferEmpty(String s) { super(s); }
}

class BufferError extends Exception { BufferError() { super(); } BufferError(String s) { super(s); } }
public interface Buffer { char get() throws BufferEmpty, BufferError; }
public abstract class InfiniteBuffer implements Buffer { abstract char get() throws BufferError; }
The overriding declaration of method get in class InfiniteBuffer states that method get in any subclass of InfiniteBuffer never throws a BufferEmpty exception, putatively because it generates the data in the buffer, and thus can never run out of data.

An instance method that is not abstract can be overridden by an abstract method. For example, we can declare an abstract class Point that requires its subclasses to implement toString if they are to be complete, instantiable classes:


abstract class Point {
	int x, y;
	public abstract String toString();
}
This abstract declaration of toString overrides the non-abstract toString method of class Object (§20.1.2). (Class Object is the implicit direct superclass of class Point.) Adding the code:


class ColoredPoint extends Point {
	int color;
	public String toString() {
		return super.toString() + ": color " + color; // error
	}
}
results in a compile-time error because the invocation super.toString() refers to method toString in class Point, which is abstract and therefore cannot be invoked. Method toString of class Object can be made available to class ColoredPoint only if class Point explicitly makes it available through some other method, as in:


abstract class Point {
	int x, y;
	public abstract String toString();
	protected String objString() { return super.toString(); }
}

class ColoredPoint extends Point {
	int color;
	public String toString() {
		return objString() + ": color " + color;														// correct
	}
}

8.4.3.2 static Methods

A method that is declared static is called a class method. A class method is always invoked without reference to a particular object. An attempt to reference the current object using the keyword this or the keyword super in the body of a class method results in a compile time error. It is a compile-time error for a static method to be declared abstract.

A method that is not declared static is called an instance method, and sometimes called a non-static method). An instance method is always invoked with respect to an object, which becomes the current object to which the keywords this and super refer during execution of the method body.

8.4.3.3 final Methods

A method can be declared final to prevent subclasses from overriding or hiding it. It is a compile-time error to attempt to override or hide a final method.

A private method and all methods declared in a final class (§8.1.2.2) are implicitly final, because it is impossible to override them. It is permitted but not required for the declarations of such methods to redundantly include the final keyword.

It is a compile-time error for a final method to be declared abstract.

At run-time, a machine-code generator or optimizer can easily and safely "inline" the body of a final method, replacing an invocation of the method with the code in its body, as in the example:


final class Point {
	int x, y;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}

class Test { public static void main(String[] args) { Point[] p = new Point[100]; for (int i = 0; i < p.length; i++) { p[i] = new Point(); p[i].move(i, p.length-1-i); } } }
Here, inlining the method move of class Point in method main would transform the for loop to the form:


		for (int i = 0; i < p.length; i++) {
			p[i] = new Point();
			Point pi = p[i];
			pi.x += i;
			pi.y += p.length-1-i;
		}
The loop might then be subject to further optimizations.

Such inlining cannot be done at compile time unless it can be guaranteed that Test and Point will always be recompiled together, so that whenever Point-and specifically its move method-changes, the code for Test.main will also be updated.

8.4.3.4 native Methods

A method that is native is implemented in platform-dependent code, typically written in another programming language such as C, C++, FORTRAN, or assembly language. The body of a native method is given as a semicolon only, indicating that the implementation is omitted, instead of a block.

A compile-time error occurs if a native method is declared abstract.

For example, the class RandomAccessFile of the standard package java.io might declare the following native methods:


package java.io;

public class RandomAccessFile
implements DataOutput, DataInput { . . . public native void open(String name, boolean writeable) throws IOException; public native int readBytes(byte[] b, int off, int len) throws IOException; public native void writeBytes(byte[] b, int off, int len) throws IOException; public native long getFilePointer() throws IOException; public native void seek(long pos) throws IOException; public native long length() throws IOException; public native void close() throws IOException; }

8.4.3.5 synchronized Methods

A synchronized method acquires a lock (§17.1) before it executes. For a class (static) method, the lock associated with the Class object (§20.3) for the method's class is used. For an instance method, the lock associated with this (the object for which the method was invoked) is used. These are the same locks that can be used by the synchronized statement (§14.17); thus, the code:


class Test {
	int count;
	synchronized void bump() { count++; }
	static int classCount;
	static synchronized void classBump() {
		classCount++;
	}
}
has exactly the same effect as:


class BumpTest {
	int count;
	void bump() {
		synchronized (this) {
			count++;
		}
	}
	static int classCount;
	static void classBump() {
		try {
			synchronized (Class.forName("BumpTest")) {
				classCount++;
			}
		} catch (ClassNotFoundException e) {
				...
		}
	}
}
The more elaborate example:


public class Box {

private Object boxContents;
public synchronized Object get() { Object contents = boxContents; boxContents = null; return contents; }
public synchronized boolean put(Object contents) { if (boxContents != null) return false; boxContents = contents; return true; }
}
defines a class which is designed for concurrent use. Each instance of the class Box has an instance variable contents that can hold a reference to any object. You can put an object in a Box by invoking put, which returns false if the box is already full. You can get something out of a Box by invoking get, which returns a null reference if the box is empty.

If put and get were not synchronized, and two threads were executing methods for the same instance of Box at the same time, then the code could misbehave. It might, for example, lose track of an object because two invocations to put occurred at the same time.

See §17 for more discussion of threads and locks.

8.4.4 Method Throws

A throws clause is used to declare any checked exceptions (§11.2) that can result from the execution of a method or constructor:

A compile-time error occurs if any ClassType mentioned in a throws clause is not the class Throwable (§20.22) or a subclass of Throwable. It is permitted but not required to mention other (unchecked) exceptions in a throws clause.

For each checked exception that can result from execution of the body of a method or constructor, a compile-time error occurs unless that exception type or a superclass of that exception type is mentioned in a throws clause in the declaration of the method or constructor.

The requirement to declare checked exceptions allows the compiler to ensure that code for handling such error conditions has been included. Methods or constructors that fail to handle exceptional conditions thrown as checked exceptions will normally result in a compile-time error because of the lack of a proper exception type in a throws clause. Java thus encourages a programming style where rare and otherwise truly exceptional conditions are documented in this way.

The predefined exceptions that are not checked in this way are those for which declaring every possible occurrence would be unimaginably inconvenient:

A method that overrides or hides another method (§8.4.6), including methods that implement abstract methods defined in interfaces, may not be declared to throw more checked exceptions than the overridden or hidden method.

More precisely, suppose that B is a class or interface, and A is a superclass or superinterface of B, and a method declaration n in B overrides or hides a method declaration m in A. If n has a throws clause that mentions any checked exception types, then m must have a throws clause, and for every checked exception type listed in the throws clause of n, that same exception class or one of its superclasses must occur in the throws clause of m; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs.

See §11 for more information about exceptions and a large example.

8.4.5 Method Body

A method body is either a block of code that implements the method or simply a semicolon, indicating the lack of an implementation. The body of a method must be a semicolon if and only if the method is either abstract (§8.4.3.1) or native (§8.4.3.4).

A compile-time error occurs if a method declaration is either abstract or native and has a block for its body. A compile-time error occurs if a method declaration is neither abstract nor native and has a semicolon for its body.

If an implementation is to be provided for a method but the implementation requires no executable code, the method body should be written as a block that contains no statements: "{ }".

If a method is declared void, then its body must not contain any return statement (§14.15) that has an Expression.

If a method is declared to have a return type, then every return statement (§14.15) in its body must have an Expression. A compile-time error occurs if the body of the method can complete normally (§14.1). In other words, a method with a return type must return only by using a return statement that provides a value return; it is not allowed to "drop off the end of its body."

Note that it is possible for a method to have a declared return type and yet contain no return statements. Here is one example:

class DizzyDean {
int pitch() { throw new RuntimeException("90 mph?!"); }
}

8.4.6 Inheritance, Overriding, and Hiding

A class inherits from its direct superclass and direct superinterfaces all the methods (whether abstract or not) of the superclass and superinterfaces that are accessible to code in the class and are neither overridden (§8.4.6.1) nor hidden (§8.4.6.2) by a declaration in the class.

8.4.6.1 Overriding (By Instance Methods)

If a class declares an instance method, then the declaration of that method is said to override any and all methods with the same signature in the superclasses and superinterfaces of the class that would otherwise be accessible to code in the class. Moreover, if the method declared in the class is not abstract, then the declaration of that method is said to implement any and all declarations of abstract methods with the same signature in the superclasses and superinterfaces of the class that would otherwise be accessible to code in the class.

A compile-time error occurs if an instance method overrides a static method. In this respect, overriding of methods differs from hiding of fields (§8.3), for it is permissible for an instance variable to hide a static variable.

An overridden method can be accessed by using a method invocation expression (§15.11) that contains the keyword super. Note that a qualified name or a cast to a superclass type is not effective in attempting to access an overridden method; in this respect, overriding of methods differs from hiding of fields. See §15.11.4.10 for discussion and examples of this point.

8.4.6.2 Hiding (By Class Methods)

If a class declares a static method, then the declaration of that method is said to hide any and all methods with the same signature in the superclasses and superinterfaces of the class that would otherwise be accessible to code in the class. A compile-time error occurs if a static method hides an instance method. In this respect, hiding of methods differs from hiding of fields (§8.3), for it is permissible for a static variable to hide an instance variable.

A hidden method can be accessed by using a qualified name or by using a method invocation expression (§15.11) that contains the keyword super or a cast to a superclass type. In this respect, hiding of methods is similar to hiding of fields.

8.4.6.3 Requirements in Overriding and Hiding

If a method declaration overrides or hides the declaration of another method, then a compile-time error occurs if they have different return types or if one has a return type and the other is void. Moreover, a method declaration must not have a throws clause that conflicts (§8.4.4) with that of any method that it overrides or hides; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs. In these respects, overriding of methods differs from hiding of fields (§8.3), for it is permissible for a field to hide a field of another type.

The access modifier (§6.6) of an overriding or hiding method must provide at least as much access as the overridden or hidden method, or a compile-time error occurs. In more detail:

Note that a private method is never accessible to subclasses and so cannot be hidden or overridden in the technical sense of those terms. This means that a subclass can declare a method with the same signature as a private method in one of its superclasses, and there is no requirement that the return type or throws clause of such a method bear any relationship to those of the private method in the superclass.

8.4.6.4 Inheriting Methods with the Same Signature

It is possible for a class to inherit more than one method with the same signature (§8.4.6.4). Such a situation does not in itself cause a compile-time error. There are then two possible cases:

It is not possible for two or more inherited methods with the same signature not to be abstract, because methods that are not abstract are inherited only from the direct superclass, not from superinterfaces.

There might be several paths by which the same method declaration might be inherited from an interface. This fact causes no difficulty and never, of itself, results in a compile-time error.

8.4.7 Overloading

If two methods of a class (whether both declared in the same class, or both inherited by a class, or one declared and one inherited) have the same name but different signatures, then the method name is said to be overloaded. This fact causes no difficulty and never of itself results in a compile-time error. There is no required relationship between the return types or between the throws clauses of two methods with the same name but different signatures.

Methods are overridden on a signature-by-signature basis. If, for example, a class declares two public methods with the same name, and a subclass overrides one of them, the subclass still inherits the other method. In this respect, Java differs from C++.

When a method is invoked (§15.11), the number of actual arguments and the compile-time types of the arguments are used, at compile time, to determine the signature of the method that will be invoked (§15.11.2). If the method that is to be invoked is an instance method, the actual method to be invoked will be determined at run time, using dynamic method lookup (§15.11.4).

8.4.8 Examples of Method Declarations

The following examples illustrate some (possibly subtle) points about method declarations.

8.4.8.1 Example: Overriding

In the example:


class Point {

int x = 0, y = 0;

void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}
class SlowPoint extends Point {
int xLimit, yLimit;
void move(int dx, int dy) { super.move(limit(dx, xLimit), limit(dy, yLimit)); }
static int limit(int d, int limit) { return d > limit ? limit : d < -limit ? -limit : d; }
}
the class SlowPoint overrides the declarations of method move of class Point with its own move method, which limits the distance that the point can move on each invocation of the method. When the move method is invoked for an instance of class SlowPoint, the overriding definition in class SlowPoint will always be called, even if the reference to the SlowPoint object is taken from a variable whose type is Point.

8.4.8.2 Example: Overloading, Overriding, and Hiding

In the example:


class Point {

int x = 0, y = 0;

void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }

int color;
}
class RealPoint extends Point {
float x = 0.0f, y = 0.0f;

void move(int dx, int dy) { move((float)dx, (float)dy); }

void move(float dx, float dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}
the class RealPoint hides the declarations of the int instance variables x and y of class Point with its own float instance variables x and y, and overrides the method move of class Point with its own move method. It also overloads the name move with another method with a different signature (§8.4.2).

In this example, the members of the class RealPoint include the instance variable color inherited from the class Point, the float instance variables x and y declared in RealPoint, and the two move methods declared in RealPoint.

Which of these overloaded move methods of class RealPoint will be chosen for any particular method invocation will be determined at compile time by the overloading resolution procedure described in §15.11.

8.4.8.3 Example: Incorrect Overriding

This example is an extended variation of that in the preceding section:


class Point {

int x = 0, y = 0, color;

void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }

int getX() { return x; }

int getY() { return y; }
}
class RealPoint extends Point {
float x = 0.0f, y = 0.0f;

void move(int dx, int dy) { move((float)dx, (float)dy); }

void move(float dx, float dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }

float getX() { return x; }

float getY() { return y; }
}
Here the class Point provides methods getX and getY that return the values of its fields x and y; the class RealPoint then overrides these methods by declaring methods with the same signature. The result is two errors at compile time, one for each method, because the return types do not match; the methods in class Point return values of type int, but the wanna-be overriding methods in class RealPoint return values of type float.

8.4.8.4 Example: Overriding versus Hiding

This example corrects the errors of the example in the preceding section:


class Point {

int x = 0, y = 0;

void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }

int getX() { return x; }

int getY() { return y; }

int color;
}
class RealPoint extends Point {
float x = 0.0f, y = 0.0f;

void move(int dx, int dy) { move((float)dx, (float)dy); }

void move(float dx, float dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }

int getX() { return (int)Math.floor(x); }

int getY() { return (int)Math.floor(y); }
}
Here the overriding methods getX and getY in class RealPoint have the same return types as the methods of class Point that they override, so this code can be successfully compiled.

Consider, then, this test program:


class Test {

	public static void main(String[] args) {
		RealPoint rp = new RealPoint();
		Point p = rp;
		rp.move(1.71828f, 4.14159f);
		p.move(1, -1);
		show(p.x, p.y);
		show(rp.x, rp.y);
		show(p.getX(), p.getY());
		show(rp.getX(), rp.getY());
	}

static void show(int x, int y) { System.out.println("(" + x + ", " + y + ")"); }
static void show(float x, float y) { System.out.println("(" + x + ", " + y + ")"); }
}
The output from this program is:


(0, 0)
(2.7182798, 3.14159)
(2, 3)
(2, 3)
The first line of output illustrates the fact that an instance of RealPoint actually contains the two integer fields declared in class Point; it is just that their names are hidden from code that occurs within the declaration of class RealPoint (and those of any subclasses it might have). When a reference to an instance of class RealPoint in a variable of type Point is used to access the field x, the integer field x declared in class Point is accessed. The fact that its value is zero indicates that the method invocation p.move(1, -1) did not invoke the method move of class Point; instead, it invoked the overriding method move of class RealPoint.

The second line of output shows that the field access rp.x refers to the field x declared in class RealPoint. This field is of type float, and this second line of output accordingly displays floating-point values. Incidentally, this also illustrates the fact that the method name show is overloaded; the types of the arguments in the method invocation dictate which of the two definitions will be invoked.

The last two lines of output show that the method invocations p.getX() and rp.getX() each invoke the getX method declared in class RealPoint. Indeed, there is no way to invoke the getX method of class Point for an instance of class RealPoint from outside the body of RealPoint, no matter what the type of the variable we may use to hold the reference to the object. Thus, we see that fields and methods behave differently: hiding is different from overriding.

8.4.8.5 Example: Invocation of Hidden Class Methods

A hidden class (static) method can be invoked by using a reference whose type is the class that actually contains the declaration of the method. In this respect, hiding of static methods is different from overriding of instance methods. The example:


class Super {
	static String greeting() { return "Goodnight"; }
	String name() { return "Richard"; }
}

class Sub extends Super { static String greeting() { return "Hello"; } String name() { return "Dick"; } }
class Test { public static void main(String[] args) { Super s = new Sub(); System.out.println(s.greeting() + ", " + s.name()); } }
produces the output:

Goodnight, Dick
because the invocation of greeting uses the type of s, namely Super, to figure out, at compile time, which class method to invoke, whereas the invocation of name uses the class of s, namely Sub, to figure out, at run time, which instance method to invoke.

8.4.8.6 Large Example of Overriding

Overriding makes it easy for subclasses to extend the behavior of an existing class, as shown in this example:


import java.io.OutputStream;

import java.io.IOException;

class BufferOutput {

private OutputStream o;

BufferOutput(OutputStream o) { this.o = o; }

protected byte[] buf = new byte[512];

protected int pos = 0;
public void putchar(char c) throws IOException { if (pos == buf.length) flush(); buf[pos++] = (byte)c; }

	public void putstr(String s) throws IOException {
		for (int i = 0; i < s.length(); i++)
			putchar(s.charAt(i));
	}

public void flush() throws IOException { o.write(buf, 0, pos); pos = 0; }
}
class LineBufferOutput extends BufferOutput {
LineBufferOutput(OutputStream o) { super(o); }
public void putchar(char c) throws IOException { super.putchar(c); if (c == '\n') flush(); }
}
class Test { public static void main(String[] args)
throws IOException
{ LineBufferOutput lbo =
new LineBufferOutput(System.out); lbo.putstr("lbo\nlbo"); System.out.print("print\n"); lbo.putstr("\n"); } }
This example produces the output:


lbo
print
lbo
The class BufferOutput implements a very simple buffered version of an OutputStream, flushing the output when the buffer is full or flush is invoked. The subclass LineBufferOutput declares only a constructor and a single method putchar, which overrides the method putchar of BufferOutput. It inherits the methods putstr and flush from class Buffer.

In the putchar method of a LineBufferOutput object, if the character argument is a newline, then it invokes the flush method. The critical point about overriding in this example is that the method putstr, which is declared in class BufferOutput, invokes the putchar method defined by the current object this, which is not necessarily the putchar method declared in class BufferOutput.

Thus, when putstr is invoked in main using the LineBufferOutput object lbo, the invocation of putchar in the body of the putstr method is an invocation of the putchar of the object lbo, the overriding declaration of putchar that checks for a newline. This allows a subclass of BufferOutput to change the behavior of the putstr method without redefining it.

Documentation for a class such as BufferOutput, which is designed to be extended, should clearly indicate what is the contract between the class and its subclasses, and should clearly indicate that subclasses may override the putchar method in this way. The implementor of the BufferOutput class would not, therefore, want to change the implementation of putstr in a future implementation of BufferOutput not to use the method putchar, because this would break the preexisting contract with subclasses. See the further discussion of binary compatibility in §13, especially §13.2.

8.4.8.7 Example: Incorrect Overriding because of Throws

This example uses the usual and conventional form for declaring a new exception type, in its declaration of the class BadPointException:


class BadPointException extends Exception {
	BadPointException() { super(); }
	BadPointException(String s) { super(s); }
}

class Point {
	int x, y;
	void move(int dx, int dy) { x += dx; y += dy; }
}

class CheckedPoint extends Point { void move(int dx, int dy) throws BadPointException { if ((x + dx) < 0 || (y + dy) < 0) throw new BadPointException(); x += dx; y += dy; } }
This example results in a compile-time error, because the override of method move in class CheckedPoint declares that it will throw a checked exception that the move in class Point has not declared. If this were not considered an error, an invoker of the method move on a reference of type Point could find the contract between it and Point broken if this exception were thrown.

Removing the throws clause does not help:


class CheckedPoint extends Point {
	void move(int dx, int dy) {
		if ((x + dx) < 0 || (y + dy) < 0)
			throw new BadPointException();
		x += dx; y += dy;
	}
}
A different compile-time error now occurs, because the body of the method move cannot throw a checked exception, namely BadPointException, that does not appear in the throws clause for move.

8.5 Static Initializers

Any static initializers declared in a class are executed when the class is initialized and, together with any field initializers (§8.3.2) for class variables, may be used to initialize the class variables of the class (§12.4).

It is a compile-time error for a static initializer to be able to complete abruptly (§14.1, §15.5) with a checked exception (§11.2).

The static initializers and class variable initializers are executed in textual order and may not refer to class variables declared in the class whose declarations appear textually after the use, even though these class variables are in scope. This restriction is designed to catch, at compile time, circular or otherwise malformed initializations. Thus, both:


class Z {
	static int i = j + 2; 
	static int j = 4;
}
and:


class Z {
	static { i = j + 2; }
	static int i, j;
	static { j = 4; }
}
result in compile-time errors.

Accesses to class variables by methods are not checked in this way, so:


class Z {
	static int peek() { return j; }
static int i = peek(); static int j = 1; }
class Test { public static void main(String[] args) { System.out.println(Z.i); }
}
produces the output:

0
because the variable initializer for i uses the class method peek to access the value of the variable j before j has been initialized by its variable initializer, at which point it still has its default value (§4.5.4).

If a return statement (§14.15) appears anywhere within a static initializer, then a compile-time error occurs.

If the keyword this (§15.7.2) or the keyword super (§15.10, §15.11) appears anywhere within a static initializer, then a compile-time error occurs.

8.6 Constructor Declarations

A constructor is used in the creation of an object that is an instance of a class:

The SimpleTypeName in the ConstructorDeclarator must be the simple name of the class that contains the constructor declaration; otherwise a compile-time error occurs. In all other respects, the constructor declaration looks just like a method declaration that has no result type.

Here is a simple example:


class Point {
	int x, y;
	Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }
}
Constructors are invoked by class instance creation expressions (§15.8), by the newInstance method of class Class (§20.3), by the conversions and concatenations caused by the string concatenation operator + (§15.17.1), and by explicit constructor invocations from other constructors (§8.6.5). Constructors are never invoked by method invocation expressions (§15.11).

Access to constructors is governed by access modifiers (§6.6). This is useful, for example, in preventing instantiation by declaring an inaccessible constructor (§8.6.8).

Constructor declarations are not members. They are never inherited and therefore are not subject to hiding or overriding.

8.6.1 Formal Parameters

The formal parameters of a constructor are identical in structure and behavior to the formal parameters of a method (§8.4.1).

8.6.2 Constructor Signature

The signature of a constructor is identical in structure and behavior to the signature of a method (§8.4.2).

8.6.3 Constructor Modifiers

The access modifiers public, protected, and private are discussed in §6.6. A compile-time error occurs if the same modifier appears more than once in a constructor declaration, or if a constructor declaration has more than one of the access modifiers public, protected, and private.

Unlike methods, a constructor cannot be abstract, static, final, native, or synchronized. A constructor is not inherited, so there is no need to declare it final and an abstract constructor could never be implemented. A constructor is always invoked with respect to an object, so it makes no sense for a constructor to be static. There is no practical need for a constructor to be synchronized, because it would lock the object under construction, which is normally not made available to other threads until all constructors for the object have completed their work. The lack of native constructors is an arbitrary language design choice that makes it easy for an implementation of the Java Virtual Machine to verify that superclass constructors are always properly invoked during object creation.

8.6.4 Constructor Throws

The throws clause for a constructor is identical in structure and behavior to the throws clause for a method (§8.4.4).

8.6.5 Constructor Body

The first statement of a constructor body may be an explicit invocation of another constructor of the same class, written as this followed by a parenthesized argument list, or an explicit invocation of a constructor of the direct superclass, written as super followed by a parenthesized argument list.

It is a compile-time error for a constructor to directly or indirectly invoke itself through a series of one or more explicit constructor invocations involving this.

If a constructor body does not begin with an explicit constructor invocation and the constructor being declared is not part of the primordial class Object, then the constructor body is implicitly assumed by the compiler to begin with a superclass constructor invocation "super();", an invocation of the constructor of its direct superclass that takes no arguments.

Except for the possibility of explicit constructor invocations, the body of a constructor is like the body of a method (§8.4.5). A return statement (§14.15) may be used in the body of a constructor if it does not include an expression.

In the example:


class Point {

int x, y;

Point(int x, int y) { this.x = x; this.y = y; }
}
class ColoredPoint extends Point {
static final int WHITE = 0, BLACK = 1;

int color;
ColoredPoint(int x, int y) { this(x, y, WHITE); }
ColoredPoint(int x, int y, int color) { super(x, y);
this.color = color;
}
}
the first constructor of ColoredPoint invokes the second, providing an additional argument; the second constructor of ColoredPoint invokes the constructor of its superclass Point, passing along the coordinates.

An explicit constructor invocation statement may not refer to any instance variables or instance methods declared in this class or any superclass, or use this or super in any expression; otherwise, a compile-time error occurs. For example, if the first constructor of ColoredPoint in the example above were changed to:


	ColoredPoint(int x, int y) {
		this(x, y, color);
	}
then a compile-time error would occur, because an instance variable cannot be used within a superclass constructor invocation.

An invocation of the constructor of the direct superclass, whether it actually appears as an explicit constructor invocation statement or is provided automatically (§8.6.7), performs an additional implicit action after a normal return of control from the constructor: all instance variables that have initializers are initialized at that time, in the textual order in which they appear in the class declaration. An invocation of another constructor in the same class using the keyword this does not perform this additional implicit action.

§12.5 describes the creation and initialization of new class instances.

8.6.6 Constructor Overloading

Overloading of constructors is identical in behavior to overloading of methods. The overloading is resolved at compile time by each class instance creation expression (§15.8).

8.6.7 Default Constructor

If a class contains no constructor declarations, then a default constructor that takes no parameters is automatically provided:

A compile-time error occurs if a default constructor is provided by the compiler but the superclass does not have a constructor that takes no arguments.

If the class is declared public, then the default constructor is implicitly given the access modifier public (§6.6); otherwise, the default constructor has the default access implied by no access modifier. Thus, the example:


public class Point {
	int x, y;
}
is equivalent to the declaration:


public class Point {
	int x, y;
	public Point() { super(); }
}
where the default constructor is public because the class Point is public.

8.6.8 Preventing Instantiation of a Class

A class can be designed to prevent code outside the class declaration from creating instances of the class by declaring at least one constructor, to prevent the creation of an implicit constructor, and declaring all constructors to be private. A public class can likewise prevent the creation of instances outside its package by declaring at least one constructor, to prevent creation of a default constructor with public access, and declaring no constructor that is public.

Thus, in the example:


class ClassOnly {
	private ClassOnly() { }
	static String just = "only the lonely";
}
the class ClassOnly cannot be instantiated, while in the example:


package just;

public class PackageOnly {
	PackageOnly() { }
	String[] justDesserts = { "cheesecake", "ice cream" };
}
the class PackageOnly can be instantiated only within the package just, in which it is declared.


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Java Language Specification (HTML generated by Suzette Pelouch on February 24, 1998)
Copyright © 1996 Sun Microsystems, Inc. All rights reserved
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